🇺🇸▼
Ancient Mesopotamia, a phrase meaning "the land between two rivers," was home to some of the world's first great urban centers. These cities developed along the fertile banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, becoming fully established between approximately 2900 and 2350 BCE. While many settlements flourished for centuries, twelve became particularly renowned in their own time and in later legends recorded by Greek writers. Beyond their historical significance, these cities have yielded some of the most critical archaeological discoveries in the region, offering a window into early human civilization.
Most Mesopotamian cities began as small, agrarian villages. Over time, they evolved into vital hubs for trade or religious worship. Even a city without direct access to valuable trade goods could achieve significant wealth if it served as a site for pilgrimages. Visitors traveling to these sacred grounds would leave offerings at the temples and spend money on food and lodging, fueling the local economy.
Religion was the absolute core of every city. Scholar Gwendolyn Leick explains the deep spiritual connection: "Myths describe cities such as Babylon to have been created by the gods to be their dwelling place. Each city was thus intimately connected to a particular deity, whose image resided in the temple. The fate of individual cities was linked with the prestige and popularity of their main deity."
Rivalry between these city-states was intense and often destructive. Each city competed to outdo its neighbors by constructing the largest temples, the most impressive walls, beautiful public gardens, and a superior economy. When a city created a great architectural wonder, it was celebrated with grand festivals. Conversely, when a city fell, it was mourned in special poems known as city laments. The following sections detail the brief histories of twelve of these great cities, highlighting what made them famous and the circumstances of their eventual decline.
Nineveh is perhaps best known today from the biblical story of Jonah. However, its history extended far beyond that narrative. It grew from a small settlement around 6000 BCE to a major religious center dedicated to the goddess Inanna by 3000 BCE. The city reached its zenith as the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire under King Sennacherib, who ruled from 705 to 681 BCE. During his reign, he constructed vast palace complexes and beautiful parks. Recent archaeological research suggests that the famous Hanging Gardens may have actually been built in Nineveh by Sennacherib, rather than in Babylon as previously believed.
Nineveh later became the site of the great library established by King Ashurbanipal (668-627 BCE). This library held over 30,000 clay tablets containing literature, science, and history. Tragically, the city was destroyed in 612 BCE by a coalition of enemies as the Assyrian Empire collapsed, ending its dominance.
Nineveh continued to flourish after Sennacherib and became the site of the famous library of Ashurbanipal (reign 668-627 BCE), which held over 30,000 texts. The city was destroyed in 612 BCE by a coalition of Medes, Babylonians, and Persians as the Neo-Assyrian Empire fell.
Kish was one of the oldest and longest-inhabited cities in Mesopotamian history. It served as an important religious site for the goddess Inanna and the god Enki. According to ancient Sumerian records, Kish was the first city to receive kingship from the gods following a great flood. Consequently, the title "King of Kish" came to symbolize the ruler of all Sumer. Sargon of Akkad famously adopted this title after he conquered the region and unified the city-states.
Kish was also a significant center for learning, hosting numerous scribal schools. It won the first recorded war in history around 2700 BCE. Notably, the city produced one of the earliest known female rulers, Queen Kubaba. The city eventually declined and was abandoned sometime after 750 CE.
Kish is notable as a seat of learning, boasting many scribal schools, monumental architecture, and winning the first war in recorded history, when King Enmebaragesi of Kish defeated Elam in 2700 BCE. The city is also notable as the only one with a female monarch, Kubaba, who had formerly been an innkeeper. Kish declined during the Neo-Assyrian and Persian periods and was finally abandoned at some point after 750.
The ancient Sumerians believed Eridu was the very first city in the world. According to their foundational myths, kingship first "descended from heaven" to Eridu. The city never functioned as a major political capital. Instead, it served as a vital religious center dedicated to Enki, the god of wisdom and magic. Eridu features prominently in many creation stories and myths.
Eridu remained an important religious site and trade center until it was abandoned sometime around the year 600 BCE. The most likely cause of its fall is thought to be overuse of the land.
It remained an important sacred site and trading center until it was abandoned around 600 BCE. Historians believe the decline was likely caused by environmental damage resulting from over-farming, which salinated the soil and made agriculture difficult.
Uruk grew to become the most powerful city in early Mesopotamia. It gave its name to the crucial Uruk Period (4000-3100 BCE), a time when key aspects of civilization were developed, including writing, mass-produced pottery, and monumental architecture. Its famous king, Gilgamesh, is the hero of the world's oldest epic poem, which explores themes of friendship, mortality, and the search for meaning.
The city was continuously inhabited from its establishment through the 7th century, when it was abandoned during the Arab Muslim conquest of the region.
Uruk is considered the first true city. Its influence was immense; artifacts from Uruk have been found across the region and even in Egypt. Its patron goddess, Inanna, was extremely popular, drawing thousands of pilgrims. Uruk's success inspired the founding of other cities, effectively spreading urbanization across the ancient Near East.
The city was continuously inhabited until the 7th century CE, when it was eventually abandoned during the Arab conquests.
The Temple of Enlil at Nippur (the Ekur) was restored by the Kassites, as was the surrounding city, circa 1375 BCE, and Nippur continued as an important cultural center until the 9th century, although few may have actually lived there. It was abandoned sometime in the 13th century, and whatever was left of the city fell into ruin.
Nippur was a major religious and cultural center, serving as the sacred city of Enlil, the chief god of the Mesopotamian pantheon. Because it was a primary pilgrimage destination, it supported many scribal schools. These schools recorded the sacred stories that form the basis of Mesopotamian mythology. Many great kings, from Gilgamesh to Sargon of Akkad, honored Nippur and sought its blessing for their rule.
The city lost its special religious status when King Hammurabi transferred its influence to Babylon in the 18th century BCE. It was later restored but slowly faded, being abandoned around the 13th century CE.
Shulgi built a great wall to protect Ur from invasion, but it was so long that it could not be properly manned and was not anchored at either end. In 1750 BCE, the Amorites simply walked around the wall to attack Ur, and the Elamites breached it, ending not only Ur but also the Sumerian civilization.
Ur began as a small village and grew into a major port city on the Persian Gulf. It is mentioned in the Bible's Book of Genesis. Ur became famous in modern times when the "Royal Tombs of Ur" were discovered, filled with magnificent treasures like Queen Puabi's elaborate headdress.
Ur reached its height during the Ur III period (circa 2112-2004 BCE). This era is often described as a "Sumerian Renaissance" due to the flourishing of art, literature, and building. A great defensive wall was constructed, but it was too long to guard properly. In 1750 BCE, invaders either walked around it or breached it, leading to the city's fall and the end of Sumerian civilization.
Sippar was dedicated to the sun god Utu. According to the Sumerian King List, it was the fourth city to receive kingship from the gods. It was famous for producing cylinder seals and high-quality wool. The famous Babylonian Map of the World, a clay tablet depicting Babylon at the center of the universe, was discovered there.
It is also thought to be one of the first places where Hammurabi's famous law code was publicly displayed. The city declined during the Persian Empire and was abandoned sometime after 224 CE.
Mari was a marvel of ancient engineering and planning. Unlike other cities that grew organically, it was built from scratch according to a carefully designed plan. Built inland from the Euphrates River, engineers constructed a canal to bring water to the city and irrigate its fields. The streets were laid out with a sophisticated drainage system.
Its location on a major trade route made it very wealthy from tolls and commerce. Mari reached its peak under King Zimri-Lim, who was allied with Hammurabi of Babylon. However, Hammurabi later betrayed him and destroyed the city around 1761 BCE. The ruined canal flooded, softening the city's mud-brick foundations and causing them to collapse.
Though reoccupied later, Mari remained a ruin for most of its history. It is famous for the "Mari Tablets," thousands of perfectly preserved clay tablets baked in the fires of the city's destruction, which provide a wealth of historical information.
Lagash grew from a small settlement into a prosperous city thanks to its position between the two great rivers and its advanced irrigation canals. Many tablets from the city describe grand building projects, including temples and palaces. The city's most famous ruler was Gudea (circa 2144-2124 BCE), who devoted his reign to building shrines and temples.
Lagash allied with the powerful city of Ur. When Ur fell around 1750 BCE, Lagash began to decline and was abandoned by 1600 BCE.
Ashur was first an important trading post for the Akkadian Empire. Around 1900 BCE, it became the first capital of the Assyrian Empire. All Assyrian kings launched their military campaigns from Ashur and brought their plunder back to its treasury. Assyrian kings were also buried there.
Even after the capital moved to another city, Ashur remained a key religious and commercial center. It was sacked in 612 BCE by the same coalition that destroyed Nineveh. It was later destroyed by Persian rulers but remained populated until the 14th century CE.
The city of Akkad was founded by Sargon the Great. From here, he built history's first multinational empire, stretching from modern Iraq to Syria and beyond. The city became incredibly wealthy and reached its peak under Sargon's grandson, Naram-Sin.
The city's patron was the goddess Ishtar. The empire provided stability for developments in art and science, but its harsh rule caused constant rebellions. Ancient scribes said Akkad fell to invaders called the Gutians around 2154 BCE. Modern scholars believe climate change and drought weakened the empire first, allowing the invasion to succeed.
Babylon is the most famous Mesopotamian city, largely due to its many mentions in the Bible. It was a minor town until King Hammurabi made it the capital of his empire in the 18th century BCE. It quickly became the world's largest city at that time.
Babylon was destroyed by the Assyrian king Sennacherib in 689 BCE but was rebuilt. It flourished again under King Nebuchadnezzar II (604-561 BCE). He built the magnificent Ishtar Gate and a great ziggurat, which may have inspired the biblical Tower of Babel. He is also credited with the Hanging Gardens, though they may have been in Nineveh.
After being conquered by the Persians in 539 BCE, the city slowly declined. It never regained its former glory and was eventually abandoned by the 7th century CE.