Marcus Junius Brutus: Defender of Liberty or Infamous Traitor?

Marcus Junius Brutus (85 BCE to 42 BCE), a prominent Roman senator, remains one of history's most debated figures. His pivotal role in the assassination of Julius Caesar on the Ides of March, 44 BCE, defines his legacy. Brutus claimed descent from the legendary founder of the Roman Republic and positioned his actions as a defense of liberty against dictatorship. Following Caesar's murder, he fled east, raised an army with fellow conspirator Gaius Cassius Longinus, but was ultimately defeated by Caesar's successors at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE, after which he committed suicide. He is remembered either as a noble man who fought tyranny or as one of history's most notorious traitors.

Brutus was born into the Junia family, one of Rome's oldest. Their legendary ancestor, Lucius Junius Brutus, was celebrated for expelling the last Roman king and helping establish the Republic. The family saw itself as guardians of republican liberty, and Brutus displayed his family tree in his home as an adult. His father rebelled against the Roman Senate in 77 BCE and was executed after a false promise of amnesty from the general Pompey. This incident instilled a deep hatred of Pompey within the family. Brutus's mother, Servilia, was an influential political figure and the lover of Julius Caesar. Persistent rumors suggested Brutus was Caesar's son, though historians consider this unlikely based on their ages.

Brutus was intelligent, handsome, and deeply interested in philosophy. Historian Barry Strauss described him as "proud, talented, sober, high-minded, and probably a little vain." Due to his father's dishonor, his political career started late. In 59 BCE, he was implicated in a plot to murder Pompey. He was spared when his name was removed from the list of conspirators, an act likely engineered by Caesar as a favor to Servilia.

Around 59 BCE, Brutus was adopted by a relative, a legal move that erased the stain of his father's treason and allowed his political ascent. His first official post came in 58 BCE as an assistant to his uncle, Cato the Younger, governor of Cyprus. Cato was a model of traditional Roman republican ideals, and Brutus learned much from him.

In 54 BCE, Brutus married Claudia, the daughter of a powerful consul, a union that advanced his career. Elected quaestor and admitted to the Senate the following year, he then served as lieutenant governor in Cilicia in 53 BCE. There, he engaged in the common but ruthless practice of usury, lending money to the city of Salamis at an exorbitant 48% annual interest rate. When local leaders could not pay, he imprisoned them in their council house; five men starved to death before the crisis ended.

Brutus returned to Rome in 52 BCE during a period of political chaos. He wrote a pamphlet opposing the election of Pompey as sole consul, viewing such concentrated power as a step toward dictatorship. His words, "It is better to rule no one than to be another man's slave," reflected his philosophical principles. Around 51 BCE, he was elected a pontifex, a significant priestly position, likely with Caesar's support. As tensions between Pompey and Caesar grew, Brutus remained publicly neutral.

In January 49 BCE, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with his army, igniting a civil war. Brutus, despite his personal hatred for Pompey, sided with the Senate and Pompey against Caesar. This choice was likely motivated by loyalty to the Republic, which Caesar had invaded, and by the influence of men he admired, like Cato. Caesar won a decisive victory at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BCE. Before the battle, Caesar specifically ordered his troops to capture Brutus alive if possible.

After the defeat, Brutus wrote to Caesar requesting mercy. Caesar readily pardoned him. Some historians attribute this clemency to Caesar's affection for Servilia; others see it as a strategic move to win over a respected opponent for propaganda value. Caesar rewarded Brutus's loyalty by appointing him governor of Cisalpine Gaul in 46 BCE. In this role, Brutus governed fairly and avoided extortion, becoming a popular leader who even received a statue in his honor. In late 45 BCE, Caesar appointed him urban praetor and promised him further high office.

Despite his thriving career under Caesar's patronage, Brutus grew increasingly disturbed by the dictator's actions. In 44 BCE, Caesar was named dictator for life and began acting in a monarchical fashion. He made decisions without consulting the Senate, adopted regal dress, and accepted public honors reminiscent of kings. At a festival, he was offered a crown, fueling rumors he intended to officially become king.

Brutus felt the pressure of his family's legacy as defenders of liberty. Graffiti appeared on his tribunal and on statues of his ancestor, urging him to act with messages like "wake up, Brutus!" His friend Cicero and his wife Porcia encouraged him to reconsider his loyalty. The final persuasion came from his brother-in-law, Gaius Cassius Longinus, who convinced Brutus that Caesar must be stopped and that no conspiracy could succeed without his leadership.

Brutus not only joined the conspiracy but was soon among its leaders. Alongside Cassius and his distant cousin Decimus Brutus Albinus, he recruited other discontented senators who had reason to oppose the dictator. Ultimately, there were probably around 60 conspirators, of whom only around 20 would go through with the murder itself. Though he agreed that Caesar had to die, Brutus was adamant that they were acting only to remove a single tyrant and urged that they refrain from doing anything that smacked of a coup or regime change. To that end, he dissuaded Cassius from also having Mark Antony killed, and successfully argued against seizing control of any military forces. After mulling over a few different plans, Brutus and the other conspirators decided to attack Caesar at the next Senate meeting, which would be held at the Senate House in the Portico of Pompey on the Ides of March.

On the day of the assassination, Brutus, as urban praetor, calmly heard legal cases to conceal his nervousness. Caesar arrived late, persuaded to attend by Decimus Brutus, a conspirator and his old friend. Caesar entered the Senate building alone and unguarded. The conspirators closed in and drew their daggers.

"Why, this is violence!" Caesar reportedly cried out before the attack began. He was quickly swarmed and stabbed twenty-three times. In the confusion, some conspirators wounded each other; Brutus sustained a hand injury. According to the historian Plutarch, Caesar initially resisted but stopped struggling when he saw Brutus among his attackers. He then covered his head with his robe and submitted to his fate. The famous line "Et tu, Brute?" ("And you, Brutus?") was a later invention by William Shakespeare. Some ancient sources claim Caesar said, "And you, my child?" while others report he died silently.

Following the murder, the assassins, calling themselves the 'Liberators,' marched to the Capitoline Hill, their hands and robes stained with Caesar's blood. Protected by gladiators, they remained there for two tense days, delivering speeches justifying the killing as necessary to save the republic. On 17 March, the Senate brokered a compromise: the Liberators received amnesty, and Caesar's political reforms were upheld. Brutus and Cassius descended from the hill.

However, a riot at Caesar's funeral, possibly incited by Mark Antony's famous oration, soon made Rome unsafe for them. By mid-April, they fled the city.

Brutus and Cassius waited there until early August, at which point they headed East, since Caesar's successors were consolidating their strength and civil war seemed imminent. Brutus bid a tearful goodbye to Porcia in southern Italy, where they parted in front of a painting of Hector and Andromache, the ill-fated heroic couple from the Iliad. Then, Brutus went to Greece, where he enjoyed much sympathy from the rich young sons of the Roman nobility who were studying in Athens. Partly through the support of Roman students in Athens, but mostly through pillaging Greek cities, he gathered enough funds to raise an army and, in January 43 BCE, marched north into Macedonia. There, he captured Mark Antony's brother Gaius (whom he later executed) and spent the next few months building his strength, watching events play out in Italy.

In Italy, Caesar's political heirs—Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus—had formed the Second Triumvirate, a power-sharing alliance dedicated to hunting down their enemies. In late 42 BCE, the armies of Brutus and Cassius clashed with the Triumvirate's forces near Philippi in Greece. Cassius's forces were defeated first; believing the cause lost, Cassius committed suicide. Brutus fought on for several more weeks but was ultimately defeated in a second battle. Facing capture and knowing escape was impossible, Brutus took his own life. The Roman Republic, which he had killed Caesar to preserve, effectively died with him, paving the way for the era of emperors.

Brutus's legacy remains sharply divided. Was he a principled defender of liberty, motivated by duty to his ancestors and the republic? Or was he a traitor who betrayed a man who had shown him kindness and trust? His story forces enduring questions about the justification of political violence and the tragic conflict between personal loyalty and ideological conviction.